“For a brief period, I was in despair, questioning my reputation and bracing for public judgement. My mind went blank for 10-15 minutes,” recalls Riabunnisa* a Muslim social worker from Bundelkhand, Uttar Pradesh.
In rural Bundelkhand, gender bias seeps into everyday life, manifesting in both subtle and overt ways. As part of their case study research, Gargi Yadav and Suneeta Prajapati from Chambal Media documented the experiences of three women from different parts of Uttar Pradesh who had faced gendered disinformation: Riabunnisa*, a Muslim social worker; Saima*, a rural journalist; and Isha*, a local Dalit politician (names changed to protect their identities). Each woman’s experience offers unique perspectives on gendered disinformation shaped by her distinct role and background. “What remains common is the everyday-ness of gendered disinformation against them and the impact it has on their offline lives,” Gargi points out.
“Gendered disinformation in rural settings often rely on methods that might seem simplistic—an offhand comment on a photograph, the juxtaposition of images, or footage of a woman in Western attire,” explains Suneeta. “These actions can quickly escalate into a full-blown character assassination.” Chambal Media approached the study with a critical lens, aiming to understand the socio-political and cultural dynamics that fuel gendered disinformation in rural Bundelkhand. Gargi adds, “What may be perceived as disinformation in one context can be interpreted as legitimate information, opinion, or even satire in another, which complicates the process of defining and identifying it. Cultural norms, political climate, and societal values play a crucial role in shaping these perceptions.”
As a Muslim woman, Riabunnisa* faces unique vulnerabilities due to her intersecting identities of religion and gender. “This intersection heightens the discrimination and hostility she encounters, making her more prone to targeted harassment—especially in areas where anti-Muslim sentiment runs high,” explains Gargi.
Gendered disinformation, by design, spreads false or misleading information to damage women’s reputation or credibility. For Muslim women like Riabunnisa*, this often includes disinformation that exploits both religious and gender biases, inciting communal tensions or reinforcing societal prejudices against Muslim communities. “In Riabunnisa’s* case, it wasn’t her religion that was weaponised against her as much as the fact that she is a politically vocal woman,” Suneeta clarifies.
Women in public roles are especially vulnerable to both online and offline violence—facing threats, doxing, and harassment. Riabunnisa’s activism and political engagement made her an even bigger target for those aiming to silence or intimidate her through these aggressive tactics.
Personal Toll of Gendered Disinformation
“The intention was clear,” Riabunnisa* explained. “They wanted to discredit me and make me too afraid to continue my work. But I refused to let them win.” The person behind the malicious knew Riabunnisa* well. Aware of her social justice work and significant Facebook following, they sought to undermine her credibility. “Their primary goal was to defame me and push me out of the public eye,” she added.
Reflecting on the ordeal, Riabunnisa noted how her adversaries first tested her influence and reach. “They wanted to see how many people supported me before launching their attack,” she said. When a manipulated video was circulated to defame her, it initially left her shaken. “For a brief moment, I was in despair, questioning my reputation and bracing for public judgement. My mind went blank for 10-15 minutes,” she recalled. But with the support of her husband and children, she found the strength to regain her footing. “Their support was crucial in helping me recover,” she emphasised.
“The speed at which this kind of information spreads is alarming. In tight-knit rural communities, news travels fast, not just through social media but also through informal networks and gatherings. Once distorted or taken out of context, they can have devastating effects on individuals and families.” notes Gargi.
The case is a clear instance of gendered disinformation, as hackers posted pornographic content on her Facebook account, falsely implying that she was engaging with such material. Riabunnisa* was targeted with the intent to defame her. Screenshots were widely circulated, even reaching her husband, who was away at the time. “He kept calling, asking what had happened,” Riabunnisa shared, describing the immense distress this caused. The incident was especially difficult for her, as she had remarried—a situation in which a woman’s character is often judged harshly, and such an attack could overshadow her years of good work and reputation.
Initially paralyzed by shock and disbelief, Riabunnisa* eventually took action. She went live on her new account, explained that her previous account had been hacked, and sought help from the police and the cybercrime division. The videos were swiftly removed by authorities that night, and her hacked account was deleted the next morning.
Riabunnisa* acknowledged that her long-standing reputation in the social sector and established network allowed her to receive prompt help. “Because I had credibility, the video didn’t spread widely, and my family stood by me,” she said. But she also reflected on how different the outcome might have been for someone without her connections. “If it had been an ordinary girl or woman, the consequences could have been drastic—she might have been banned from using social media or even a phone.”
Even after the incident, questions lingered. “People still asked me what happened and how it happened. I explained everything and encouraged them to follow my new account if they wanted to stay connected.” While those close to her were supportive, she remained concerned about the judgement of people who only knew her through social media. “I worried that they would see the videos and believe the worst about me,” she admitted, underscoring the deep personal toll such incidents can take.
Weaponisation of Social Norms
In another disturbing instance, while Saima*, a senior journalist was away for work, some people from her neighbourhood secretly photographed her daughter, who was wearing a skirt, and brought the pictures to the local police station, claiming that her attire was “ruining the neighbourhood.” Saima*, who has been reporting on gender, health, and crimes against women for over 20 years in Bundelkhand, often leaves her two daughters at home while travelling for work. As a single mother based in Chitrakoot, she constantly worries about the potential dangers her work may pose to her children.
“It’s still a big deal here if girls wear jeans. Today, many girls are on social media and have become successful using those apps. My daughters too like posting on social media, and I’ve never stopped them. While I don’t mind them wearing clothes of their choice, society does,” Saima* shared. “They say this isn’t a big city like Delhi or Bombay where girls can wear such clothes,” Saima. Her daughters were not aware that people were photographing them or making videos to present to the authorities.
The attack on Saima* leveraged cultural prejudices and targeted her daughter. “The disinformation is not just in the image itself, but in the narrative that wearing a ‘skirt’ implies a loose character,” explains Gargi. “These campaigns play on entrenched fears and biases within the community, where women’s clothing is seen as a reflection of their morality. In this case, the portrayal of Saima*’s daughter’s attire was used to frame her as a threat to the community’s values, illustrating the widening divide between urban and rural perceptions of women’s conduct.”
The incident highlights deeply rooted patriarchal norms that seek to control women’s bodies and choices. The fact that something as simple as wearing jeans is considered provocative underscores how restrictive these norms are. Such events serve as warnings to other women and girls in the community, reinforcing the idea that women’s bodies are subject to constant scrutiny and judgement.
Despite her progressive stance and unwavering support for her daughters, Saima* expressed frustration. “The photos that were circulated, along with the inappropriate comments, were wrong. People accused my daughters of corrupting the neighbourhood’s environment, damaging both their social standing and ours.” The real harm was not in the images themselves, but in the toxic narrative that surrounded them—framing her daughters’ clothing as a symbol of immorality and a threat to community values. This calculated attack was designed to tarnish their reputation and diminish their standing in society.
In conclusion, this incident vividly illustrates how gendered disinformation in semi-urban and rural areas is both a product of and reinforced by patriarchal structures. It shows how easily personal choices can be weaponised through malicious narratives, spreading rapidly through both traditional means, such as word of mouth and community policing, and modern digital sharing. The ease with which images can be captured and circulated accelerates the spread of disinformation, creating a hostile environment for women who defy societal norms.
“Misinformation, malinformation, and disinformation often get conflated under the term ‘fake news’ in rural contexts,” notes Gargi. “While ‘fake news’ typically refers to misleading information about current events, these terms in rural areas encompass a broader range of inaccuracies that stem from both offline rumours and online posts.”
This conflation complicates efforts to address the distinct nature of each category. Misinformation refers to false information shared without malicious intent, malinformation involves genuine information used to cause harm, and disinformation is deliberately false information meant to deceive. Understanding these distinctions is crucial, especially when it comes to gendered disinformation (GD), where the content is specifically designed to harm women or perpetuate harmful stereotypes.
In rural contexts, where information often spreads through a mix of offline rumours and online platforms, this lack of distinction can lead to ineffective interventions. For example, strategies effective against misinformation (like fact-checking and public awareness campaigns) may not be effective to address the deliberate manipulation seen in disinformation. When it comes to gendered disinformation (GD), where content is often specifically crafted to harm women or reinforce harmful stereotypes, this semantic overlap makes it challenging to create targeted responses that address the unique threats faced by women in these areas.
By recognising the differences between misinformation, malinformation, and disinformation, communities can create more effective responses to gendered disinformation. This understanding helps in designing solutions that disrupt the spread of harmful narratives, provide support to victims, and build resilience in information ecosystems, especially in rural areas where women are disproportionately vulnerable to such attacks.
The Offline Consequences
Isha*, a local Dalit politician from Banda, Uttar Pradesh, has long represented a community that continues to face many systemic and social challenges. Dalits, historically marginalised as “untouchables” fall outside the Hindu caste system, which divides society into four main groups—Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (labourers)—with Dalits placed outside this hierarchy. Despite legal protections, people like Isha face discrimination and social exclusion, reflecting caste biases in both rural and urban areas.
In 2018, Isha* experienced a serious online attack when her Facebook account was hacked. A digitally altered photo depicting her standing next to a nude woman was posted, rapidly spreading across social media and affecting her personal and public life.
Coming from a small village in Chitrakoot, Isha* had overcome many hurdles, including poverty and an early forced marriage, to pursue her education. She eventually earned a law degree and entered politics, challenging both caste-based discrimination and violence against women in her region. However, this path has not been without personal sacrifice and societal pushback.
“When I saw the picture, I was shocked. I didn’t know what to do,” Isha* recalls, “I was worried about how my family would react. It felt like everything was falling apart, and I even thought of ending my life.”
Her first instinct was to take down the photo and inform her followers that her account had been hacked. But the damage was done. The fear and shame she felt lingered long after the post was removed, keeping her away from social media for months.
The mental and emotional toll was immense. “I didn’t know where to turn for help,” Isha* admits. “I was afraid it would ruin my reputation and political career. When women try to make progress, they often face these kinds of attacks. It’s devastating.”
The impact extended beyond her online presence, seeping into her personal life and community dynamics. “It wasn’t just about being online. The fear and shame followed me offline,” she explains. “In areas like mine, such incidents can force families to uproot and relocate, away from the harsh judgments of their community.”
Isha* got a mixed response from those around her. “My well-wishers supported me, alerting me to the post and helping me take it down swiftly,” she acknowledges gratefully. “But there were others who kept asking me about it repeatedly, making me relive that trauma.”
“I tried to explain to people that it was a fake image, but the damage was already done,” she explains. “It’s not just about a hacked account or a fake photo. It’s about losing trust in people, in the platforms you use, and in the idea that you can live your life with dignity.”
Isha* describes the anxiety she felt when receiving calls from people she knew, informing her about the viral post. “The woman’s face was hidden, but mine was clearly visible. I was deeply disturbed and worried about my family’s reaction. I felt like my life was over. I sank into depression, locking myself in my room for days. The thought of going to court terrified me—I had seen how women are treated there. I was scared of facing anyone.”
Despite the emotional weight of the situation, Isha* eventually regained control of her account and found the courage to return to public life. Though she spoke about the incident when asked, the experience continued to distract her, affecting her focus on her political work. During the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, she feared that the disinformation campaign might resurface while she was on the campaign trail, adding to the strain of her efforts. While the experience shook her deeply and left a lasting mark on both her personal and political life, Isha* remains determined to continue her work.
The Fallout
The attacks inflicted emotional distress, leaving the women grappling with anxiety, fear, and a pervasive sense of shame. For Isha*, the public humiliation significantly impacted her mental health, causing her to worry constantly about her family’s perception. “I felt like I was living under a dark cloud, terrified of how my family would react to what happened,” she recalls. “The fear of judgement was overwhelming.”
Riabunissa* also experienced heightened anxiety regarding her social standing. The pressures of public scrutiny weighed heavily on her, complicating her efforts to maintain her reputation in a community rife with gossip and judgement.
Social isolation emerged as another serious consequence of these attacks. In Saima’s* case, the disinformation campaign targeting her daughter affected not only her professional life but also her role as a mother, effectively ostracising her family within the community.
The constant fear of further attacks and potential public shame led to self-censorship among these women. Isha*, for example, refrained from reporting the incident to the police, worried that doing so would draw more attention and further scrutiny. “I knew that speaking out could lead to more questions and unwanted attention, so I decided to stay quiet,” she says. This self-censorship reflects the effect of the disinformation campaign, forcing her to limit her public engagement and voice.
“These women were targeted because they represent change and challenge the patriarchal norms in their societies. Each holds an intersectional identity—be it religion, profession, or political affiliation—that makes them more vulnerable to gendered disinformation,” notes Gargi. For example, the Muslim social worker faced disinformation that exploited both gender and religious biases; the rural journalist was attacked for her feminist reportage on gender issues; and the politician faced disinformation tied to her caste, class and political ambition. As public figures within their communities, these women are more visible and thus more vulnerable to attacks.
A Pattern of Misinformation Targeting Women’s Integrity
“Misinformation consistently targets women’s character, whether they are public figures or ordinary individuals,” Saima* explains. “Women in the public sphere face heightened scrutiny on social media, but the underlying goal remains the same: to label them as immoral.”
As Suneeta draws insights from Khabar Lahariya’s reporting “In many documented instances, young girls aged 15 to 20 have been subjected to malicious disinformation campaigns in rural India, primarily through manipulated photos circulated on platforms like Facebook and WhatsApp. Once the damage is done, families and victims often do not wish to speak about the incident.” These altered images often depict local boys in compromising situations with the girls, aiming to tarnish their reputations and uphold traditional notions of family honour. The repercussions can be severe: marriages have broken, violence has erupted, and girls have been forced into early marriages to mitigate perceived shame.
“The respect afforded to women is particularly fragile,” Riabunissa* notes. “When a woman refuses to conform, her character is attacked to break her down, stripping her of support from her family and community. However, if she fights for her rights and prevails, people often rally around her.”
Saima* observes a notable disparity in the treatment of men and women regarding online attacks. “People rarely post against men, and even when they do, it doesn’t escalate to the same degree. For women, the situation is reversed. Caste dynamics complicate this further; if a Dalit woman speaks out against an upper-caste man, she faces character assassination and accusations of ulterior motives.”
Additionally, innocuous actions are frequently sensationalised. For instance, a teacher’s celebratory dance video was distorted by media outlets, falsely portraying it as obscene and leading to public outrage, her suspension, and extensive online harassment. “These incidents illustrate how disinformation can swiftly devastate lives and careers, perpetuating harmful stereotypes and reinforcing patriarchal norms,” Suneeta explains. (proof has been deleted by the survivor)
Gargi says that often the biggest challenge in combating misinformation is the lack of awareness about the falsehoods in these edited photos. “Many perceive these as nightmares best forgotten. Despite efforts to educate them and encourage reporting, both girls and their families remain reluctant to speak out.” Fear often leads to the deletion of evidence, as individuals worry about potential repercussions and the reliability of law enforcement, particularly in rural areas where fact-checking capabilities are limited.
“The primary motive behind creating and spreading false information is usually to damage the target’s reputation or to act out of jealousy and revenge,” Suneeta observes, reflecting on Khabar Lahariya’s reporting of cases where young girls were targeted for refusing marriage proposals. This trend is especially pronounced in cases of gendered disinformation.
Our study team has tracked numerous Facebook groups, such as “Charitra ka Khulasa,” which explicitly target young women, raising malicious questions about their roles as ideal wives, daughters, or sisters. “These groups propagate narratives that undermine women’s social standing, reinforcing existing patriarchal structures,” Gargi remarks.
Saima*, with over 20 years of reporting experience in rural Uttar Pradesh, adds, “Gender-based disinformation often stems from deeply ingrained perceptions of women as guardians of family honour, expected to remain silent and confined. Men perpetuate these stereotypes, frequently motivated by jealousy, unrequited love, or revenge.”
The methods employed in these disinformation campaigns range from photo manipulation to narratives that undermine the character of targeted women, as seen in the case involving Saima*’s daughter. The motivations behind these actions often include revenge, communal tensions, and sensationalism, exacerbated by cultural factors prioritising women’s purity and family honour. Furthermore, limited digital literacy within affected communities amplifies vulnerabilities, allowing harmful content to proliferate unchecked on social media platforms.
Digital platforms like WhatsApp and Facebook serve as both information-sharing tools and vectors for misinformation. In closely-knit rural communities, information spreads rapidly through word-of-mouth, and access to digital technologies significantly influences this flow. Women frequently face restricted or controlled access to these technologies, limiting their ability to engage with information on social media and exacerbating their susceptibility to misinformation, as Saima* points out.
Gargi’s deep dives into these issues reveal a troubling normalisation of gendered disinformation that profoundly impacts women’s offline lives. “What is striking is the subtlety of online gendered disinformation; it isn’t always overt but often manifests as half-truths or selective framing that plays into existing biases,” they explain. This issue is not sporadic or isolated; it is woven into the daily digital experiences of these women and countless others.
By examining these regional factors—such as traditional gender norms, local community dynamics, and limited resources—researchers attempted to understand the intersections of digital presence and offline consequences. This approach helps identify gaps in policy frameworks and support systems that may not be apparent in broader studies, ensuring that interventions are culturally sensitive, context-specific, and more likely to effectively address the unique needs of women in these regions.
Was the attack unique or not?
While the specific attacks on Saima*, Isha*, and Riyabunnia* had specific elements related to their identities and local contexts, the overarching nature of the disinformation campaigns was not unique. They fit into a larger, recurring pattern of gendered disinformation that targets women in public roles around the world as highlighted in the 2020 analysis report Public Figures, Public Rage: Candidate Abuse on Social Media. Common tactics in gendered disinformation include the use of doctored images, hacking, and the dissemination of false narratives about personal and social behaviours. These attacks exploit the women’s intersectional identities—such as being Muslim, a single mother, or a woman in politics—which is a typical strategy in gendered disinformation. The experiences of Saima’, Isha*, and Riabunnia* reflect a broader pattern where women who are visible in public life—especially those advocating for change or challenging patriarchal norms—are targeted in an attempt to silence and discredit them.
While the overarching tactics are common, the specific details of the attacks—such as the involvement of Saima’s* daughter, the use of religious biases against Riabunissa*, and the impact on Isha’s* political campaigns—are shaped by the local cultural, religious, and social context. These elements add a layer of uniqueness to the attacks, making them particularly resonant and harmful in their specific environments. The attacks also demonstrate how online disinformation campaigns can have severe offline consequences, particularly in tightly-knit communities.
Concluding Remarks
Based on field experience and data collected by Gargi and Suneeta, a media literacy approach is more effective for rural audiences compared to the more technical nature of traditional fact-checking methods. While fact-checking can certainly be valuable, it often relies on digital tools and specific processes that may not resonate with or be accessible to rural communities. Instead, encouraging behavioural changes in how individuals encounter and process information proves more practical, as this approach does not require access to smartphones or advanced technologies. By fostering critical thinking and scepticism towards unverified information, a media literacy framework can empower individuals to navigate their information landscape more effectively, making it a more relatable and impactful strategy for rural audiences.
There is a pressing need for research on the information landscape in rural areas from both the perspectives of content creators and the audience. As new digital users increasingly emerge from rural India, assessing their vulnerability to misinformation and finding ways to combat it become crucial. However, this segment of the population is often absent from forums on Internet Governance, where combating misinformation is a key focus. Without targeted research and intervention, these new digital users remain vulnerable.
In the project on gendered disinformation and through general observations, they found that women often resort to self-censorship due to the shame associated with being online. This stems from fear of societal judgement and family intervention, especially from patriarchal figures in tight-knit communities. “Failure to self-censor can attract negative attention to both women and their families.” they add.
The study carried out by Chambal Media reveals that many women, targeted by false information on social media, often lack evidence and fear the consequences for their families if such posts are seen. “This shows how gender dynamics limit access to information and increase vulnerability to misinformation. Fear of social stigma and family backlash silences many women, perpetuating the cycle of gendered disinformation,” they reflected on their work.
(Names have been changed to protect the privacy of the people)
This report was completed as part of the pilot study “Gendered Disinformation: Deepening Perspectives and Designing Responses,” an initiative led by Meedan in collaboration with The Quint, Digital Rights Foundation, and Chambal Media. Funding was provided by the Sexual Violence Research Initiative. The purpose of this study is to better understand local and hyperlocal manifestations of gendered disinformation in South Asia.
This report is also one of the three deep dives from the project that captures individuals’ and communities’ lived experiences of gendered disinformation. Using a codesigned methodology and Meedan’s Check platform, the participating groups in this effort collected and annotated 450 public social media posts that contained potential instances of gendered disinformation. As an exploratory pilot study, the purpose of this data collection was not to draw conclusions about the prevalence of gendered disinformation in South Asia, but rather to understand some of the local and hyperlocal manifestations of this issue and to offer recommendations for counter responses and future research. Visit meedan.com to read the full report and featured recommendations.
Credits:
Written By: Sejal
Researchers: Gargi Yadav and Suneeta Prajapati
Header Design: Surangya
